August 3, 2019 | TREES
Part 4. The word Conifer comes from the Latin word ‘Coniferae’ which means ‘Cone-bearers’. This is derived from ‘Conus’ and from ‘Ferre’ or ‘Bher’ which means ‘Carrying’. More specified: ‘Bher’ includes the meaning of fruit- or children ‘bearing’ as with a pregnancy. (Picture – Ringing Cedars Russia).
In Mathematics a ‘Conus’ is described as:
‘A geometrically elongated shape with a circle as the ground surface, ending in a point. Between the two ends of the cone is the curved mantle on the outside, and inside the central vertical axis.’
The growth, size and position of the cones differs per Conifer species. The cones are on the branches with the end pointing upwards or sideways, or hanging on them. Conifer therefore belongs in the taxonomic classification to the Order of ‘Coniferales’, being the ‘conic-bearers’.
The eight important taxonomic grades are:
Life, Domain, Empire, Tribe, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species.
As a descriptive plant name (which also applies to trees), the Latin designation is included as a taxonomic standard as ‘Coniferae’. Conifers are wind bloomers. They belong to the ‘Seed Plants’ class (Spermaphyta), in the ‘Naked Seed’ category (Clade ‘Gymnospermae’).
The Cones
Conifers can be monoecious or dioecious. This relates to the propagation mechanism of the trees, which is represented in the cones. The cones accommodate the reproductive organs in two mutually different cones, the ‘male’ cone also called ‘pollen cone’, and the ‘female’ cone which is also described as ‘ovulation cone’ in the initial stages of cone formation at the tree.
The seed principles are predominantly present in the female cones, in which, after pollination by the wind through the pollen, which originate from the male cone, they further develop into germinating seeds. It usually takes one to two decades after planting a young tree before the cones begin to form.
TWO CATEGORIES OF CONES
There are two different categories of cones that vary in size. The first category is the Conifers cones with an average length of around 4 inches. These have a woody structure. The second category of cones has the shape and size of a berry, which also on this much smaller scale, contains a kind of cone structure, the envelope which consists of the berryflesh, with one opening at the bottom.
We refer to this type of cone as ‘Strobili’, in the singular ‘Strobulus’, although this term does not only apply to the cone-shaped berries of certain Conifer species, but to a wide variety of plant groups. In the following, the two cone types with regard to Conifers are described as: ‘Conifers Cones’ and ‘Conifers Strobili’.
CONIFERS CONES
The cones of Conifers such as the Pine, Cedar and Cypress are on average 4 inches (10 cm) long. The cones look different for each tree type, although the function is the same. On top of that, one tree can grow two differently looking cones. While other Conifers only grow one type cone. This has to do with their different reproductive systems. For instance, both sexes grow on the pine tree, namely the dark brown colored female cone and the light brown to yellow colored male cone.
Monoecious
The Pine is therefore ‘monoecious’, meaning that husband and wife live in the same house, so they live together. In this case in one tree. Hence a monoecious tree has both male and female cones. However, the wind ensures that the pollen produced by one tree can even be spread hundreds of miles through the air, through cross-pollination, and can land in the female cones of the same Conifer species much further away. So it can be!
Dioecious
There are also Conifers that are ‘dioecious’, in which case husband and wife each live in their own house, or in their own tree. In such a case, there is a ‘male tree’ and a ‘female tree’, and there are therefore two houses. Husband and wife then probably have a living apart together relationship. Dioecious Conifers therefore contain either only the male cones or only the female cones. Some shrub-like Conifers belong to this category.
The seed principle
Both with the dioecious Conifers (male and female living together in one house or one tree) and with the ‘single’ monoecious Conifers (male and female both having their own house or two trees), the seed principle is only formed in female cones.
These dark brown female cones really have the shape of the specific geometric cone. It consists of woody scales that partially overlap each other spirally. Underneath each scale is an ‘ovulation’ sperm principle, being the unfertilized egg, the ‘Endosperm mother cell’. This seed principle in the female cone, which is also called ‘seed bud’ (because it looks like a flower bud in a certain sense), has yet to emerge, and is uncovered. That is why Conifers in taxonomy are among the ‘nudes’ (Clade ‘Gymnospermae’).
The ovulation cones
In the early stages of the growth of these female cones, the cones are still small and soft, while already showing the geometric structure. They look like small egg shapes that grow on the branches, with a direction of growth proportional to the branch. In this early form, the cone is called an ‘ovulation cone’.
After reaching this stage, it will grow into an adult cone in two years. When the cone and internal ovule principles are fully grown, the cone focuses more away from the branch with the point facing outwards, and over time the cone opens its brown scales. The seed buds under the scales are now ready to be fertilized.
The pollen cones
The male cones grow at the end of the branches. These cones are elongated or cylindrical in shape, yellow in color and have a softer spongy structure with small bulges. In these ‘pollen cones’, the pollen is formed, also called the ‘sperm’ pollen. Both cone sexes of a monoecious tree – where husband and wife live together – are on the branches, however the pollen cones are located at the end of the branches and the female cones along the entire length of the branch. It is logical that the pollen cones grow at the end of a branch.
For example, the male cones have the farthest range in the open air to be scooped by the wind, so that the pollen formed in the spring can optimally be disposed of. These are then blown into the air by gusts of wind, and due to an aerodynamic design build on the pollen, they can float tens to hundreds of miles through the air before they land in the open scales of the female cones, of trees nearby or much further away.
Development
When a female cone, being the ovulation cone, collects the pollen, the egg present in the ovule principle is fertilized. After fertilization it grows into germinable pine seed under the scales of the female cones. This seed develops slowly in a few years, and forms a dark brown skin which later hardens into a skin around the seed. Over time, the fertilized cone releases from the branch and falls to the ground to germinate.
Spread
For example, squirrels and certain birds also distribute the cones and thus the seeds. The squirrels by storing them underground as winter supplies, which are sometimes not used and then germinate into a tree plant. In addition, there are also clever people who harvest the seeds for consumption or to grow into saplings. In this way, the cross-pollination and reproduction take place at Conifers. Conifers are therefore wind bloomers, and do not need bees or other insects for fertilization.
Consumption
The mature seeds, when they are suitable for human consumption, must first be removed from the cones or shaken, to subsequently peel each unique seed. These pale yellow colored pine seeds or pine nuts are extremely nutritious and do well as an addition to culinary dishes. An edible oil can also be pressed out that is extremely nutritious.
CONIFERS STROBILI
In some shrub-like Conifers, the cones have the shape and size of a berry, and the shell consists of flesh around a seed bud (the egg) that is also uncovered in this type of Conifers, because the end of the berry has an opening. In that case it is no longer called ‘Cone’, but ‘Strobilus’.
The word ‘Strobilus’ is a descriptive term for the various manifestations of ‘cones’ or ‘cone-like structures’. Moreover, the Strobilus does not only occur in certain Conifer species, but in a wide variety of other plant groups. The word comes from the ancient Greek ‘Strobilos’ which means ‘Whirlwind’. It refers to the rotating shape of the plant part that houses the reproductive organs.
Formation
Just like all types of cones, the strobilus has a nice geometric structure that is formed around a central, vertical axis. This axis originated from the stem, and is provided with spiral or cross-implanted structures. These carry the spore boxes (sporangia) that carry seed buds or (partial) fruits. The spores are formed in the spore boxes. Leaves that carry spore boxes are called ‘Sporophylls’, with stems one speaks of ‘Sporangiophores’.
Examples of Conifers with Strobili are the Juniper with the black / blue cone-shaped berries (Food-bearing for the Big Thrush), and the Taxus with the red also cone-shaped berries (Food-bearing for thrushes and other birds). Both Juniper and Taxus have several trunks as large shrubs and are only about 10 meters high.
Exotic
There are also the Podocarpaceae, an exotic Conifer family from the southern hemisphere. In the northern hemisphere, however, the mutual species differ considerably in appearance and size. There is no clarity about the taxonomic classification, and it has been subject to change over the decades. That is why we will not go into it further here. Also for this type of Conifers, the pollination for the formation of germinable seed always takes place via the wind.
© 2019 | Margreet Wilschut
www.margreetotto.net
*******
Click on the link for the next or previous part:
CONIFERS 1 – INTRODUCTION
CONIFERS 2 – FUNCTION AND PURPOSE
CONIFERS 3 – LEAF AND FOLIAGE
CONIFERS 4 – CONES AND STROBILI
Next part:
CONIFERS 5 – FAMILIES
CONIFERS 6 – GROWING
CONIFERS 7 – GERMINATION SEEDS
August 2, 2019 | TREES
Part 5. The Order of the Conifers, also known as ‘Order of the Pinales’, of which are around 600+ species, are subdivided according to the taxonomy into about seven families. A number of them also occur in Europe such as: the Pine family (Pinaceae), the Cedar family (Cedrus), the Cypres family (Cupressaceae), the Spruce and Fir families (Picaceae), and the Taxus family (Taxaceae).
For most families it applies that the tree species that belong to it can grow to 40 to 50 meters, and sometimes even higher, under the right climatic conditions and after many centuries of growth.
Please note this article is a long read. It is an attempt to provide a general overview of the most common Conifer species, as well of the vast and fascinating world of Conifer trees! It also dives a bit more in depth into the naming and specification of the various species and some of the language differences therein. And as the author is still learning about this topic, the content can be further edited and updated in time.
It should also be mentioned that this information is largely derived from internet sources, which can be quite different in the taxonomic classification. Sometimes it is not logically arranged for a layperson, or the determination isn’t quite obvious.
Genera
For example, the afore mentioned families consist of different ‘genera’ taxonomically. In Dutch the word ‘genera’ is referred to as ‘geslacht’, which could either mean: 1) ‘descendants’ -the species that are supposedly generated from the primordial families, being the pedigrees from the prim(a)eval trees-, 2) ‘sexe’, and 3) ‘has been slaughtered’ (stemming though from ‘slag’ as the g and ch often sounds the same, meaning someones essence (aard). It is however spellend with ‘ch’.
Therefore, the English word ‘genera’ is in a certain sense closer to the meaning than the Dutch version, as it stems obviously from ‘generation’ or ‘being generated from’. That is why the word Genera is also used more consistently in the Dutch version of this article.
To give an example of some genera of the above mentioned families:
Fir and Spruce: Fir (Abies), Hemlock Fir: (Tsuga), Douglass Fir (Pseudotsuga), Larch (Larix), Pseudolarix (1 species: the Japanese golden larch Pseudolarix amabilis ) and the Yew family (Taxaceae).
Nomination?
A Conifer family can accommodate one genus or more genera. And a genus can again contain one or more species. And a species can also consist of different varieties, including many Cultivars (genetically modified variants). Well do you still see the wood for the trees? Also, is quite easy to mix Conifer species up, as they are named differently in other languages as well, which is very confusing.
Pina and Pica
To test this against an example, the differentiation between the words ‘Pina’ and ‘Pica’ hasn’t been entirely clear. Both of the family names ‘Pinaceae’ and ‘Picaceae’, stem from the classical Latin word ‘pinna’, being a ‘pointed formation’.
In late Latin, we have the ‘pinnaculum’, diminutive of ‘pinna’, meaning ‘pin’ and ‘point’, and ‘top’ or ‘peak’ as of a mountain, or as a small turret or spire, and ‘peak’ as the accumulation of something (e.g. peak performance). Hence the two family names of the Conifers most likely refer to the pinnacle top of the green crowns of the trees, and probably also to the shapes of their cones!
Peak and ‘piek’
Also in Dutch language, the afore mentioned words have the same meaning. ‘Peak’ is spelled ‘piek’ in Dutch language. The spelling is different but it’s a diphtong, as the words sounds the same. In both languages it is also the ornamental Christmas decoration, the tree-topper that is placed on top of the Christmas tree. And interestingy enough, the Christmas tree is usually a Fir from the Picaceae family. Coïncidence or what? The Dutch word ‘piek’ also has the double meaning of pinnacle, as being the highest point of accumulation, or as a physical marker, e.g. the mountain-peak or tower-peak.
Order
Most likely the Order of the Coniferales is the all encompassing umbrella for all Conifer families (subdivided into around 600 species), for all Cone bearers so to speak, whereas the Order of the Pinales could be more specific for all Conifers with a pinnacle shape.
As I will point out later on in this article, for a layman this logic might probably be more easy to follow, all the more because trees and plants are popularly sometimes referred to differently, than they are indicated in botany or science. There are also sometimes different views among experts about the classification and appointment, also when cultivars come at play.
Nomenclature
The ‘nomenclature’ applies to science, in which the names are clearly displayed in a systematic way. For example, the name of a species always starts with the name of the genus (or the family name), which by default starts with a capital letter. The second part of the name then indicates the specific type. That is the ‘epithet’, a word that comes from the Greek and means ‘placed there’. That is then written in lower case according to the rules.
However, we might wonder if it is better to write this second name with a capital letter as well, as it often concerns the specific designation of the original species, and is an independent unit. Sometimes the second name indicates where the species comes from, as we often see in the earlier Latin names, for example ‘Pinus Siberica’. This Pine originates from Siberia obviously.
Cultivars
Many Cultivars usually have a third name. For example, a tree can be grown by color, for example the Scots Pine ‘Pinus Sylvestris Glauca’. The Glauca then stands for the blue-gray color. And perhaps this tree is called ‘Grove Den’ in Dutch because it has not improved in beauty as a cultivar. Here’s why: These trees sometimes reach a height of only 15 meters, get a peeling bark at adulthood, revealing orange-colored wood, and remain infertile.
It might not be wise planting these trees on homesteads and everlasting forests, as nature cannot then generate in the long term. The cones of cultivars may grow smaller in size, be weakened and release fewer pollen. It therefore leads also to a weakening of the habitat for people and animals.
With regard to the nomenclature terminology however, the intention in this series of articles is to simply present information and an opinion. This article therefore preferably only concerns tree species that occur naturally, which is not always so easy for lay people and even specialists to trace, since in many countries primeval forests have virtually disappeared.
Historical
That’s why we prefer to provide the most logical suitable name for the species. This is usually a Latin or Greek name that is included in taxonomic science, which is usually based on characteristics of the family, genus and species. This historical name is often more accurate than contemporary invented names. Just think of strange Dutch-language corruption such as: ‘weeping willow’, ‘monkey bread tree’, ‘snake tree’ or ‘tree of life’. These are usually appointments from Cultivars, that may or may not be based on a so-called historical event or a so-called popular invention.
Translation
However, it may also be due to a poor translation. For example, in Dutch language, a pine tree, is originally named ‘den’ (pine) or ‘denne-boom’. (pine-tree). But nowadays, for the last two decennia or so, it is also sometimes called a ‘pijn-boom’ on the internet, which actually means ‘pain-tree’ and in the Dutch supermarkets the pine seeds are sold as ‘pain-tree kernels’.
Therefore people usually do not interpret the word ‘pain’ as such, as they think the seeds are derived from some sort of exotic tree from Africa or the Brazillian rainforest, as they are not familiair with this modern naming of the den. Apparently in these cases, the name of both the ‘pain-tree’ and the ‘pain-tree kernels’ have been creatively derived from the English word ‘pine’. Because, ‘pine’ sounds virtually the same as the Dutch word for ‘pain’, which is written as ‘pijn’. The ‘ij’ and ‘i’ here are a so-called ‘diphthong’, which represent a ‘two-tone’. This means that different letters, in particular the vowels, can have the same sound in a different mutual relationship.
‘Denne’-tree
The words ‘paintree’, and ‘paintree-kernels’ as ‘pijnboom’ and ‘pijnboom pitten’, are therefore incorrectly derived from the English language, as they are wrongly spelled and named. This is a bit strange since the tree used to be traditionally popularily known and spoken about as the ‘den’ or ‘denne-tree’. Hence the seeds of the pine, should have been called in Dutch: ‘denne-seeds’, and for the edible varieties they could also be called ‘denne-nuts’, just like we would call ‘beech nuts’, that are even smaller in size.
Kernels or Seeds?
It is also a question of where the addition ‘kernels’ comes from in the designation ‘paintree-kernels’ (pijnboom-pitten). Because the characteristic of the Dutch word for ‘kernel’ is ‘pit’, and the plural of it is ‘pitten’, which are the single seeds in drupes or stone fruits, such as an apricot kernel, a prune-kernel, an avocado kernel or, as a smaller variant, the cherry kernel, so one well in a fruit.
The translation in English for the plural word ‘pitten’ however is ‘pips’, which are small fruit seeds, such as in an orange or apple. We would call these ‘zaden’ which means ‘seeds’, or ‘zaadjes’ which means ‘small seeds’. However, there are dozens of small seeds in a ripened pine cone, around 80 of them, and not a numer of large ‘pits’ or ‘kernels’. Not sure if the average native English speaker can follow me here, but hold on, it gets more complicated even!
Pineapple?
In Dutch language, a ‘pine-cone’ is often named ‘denne-kegel’ which is the proper naming as it refers to it’s conical shape. But it is also often called ‘denneappel’ which means ‘pine-apple’! And I remember being puzzled by this word as a kid, as a pine-cone is a soft wooden non edible structure to hold the seeds. And I used to think, how come, a pinecone isn’t an apple, and not even a fruit?
And then when translating, we come across the English ‘pineapple’, which is a fruit indeed! And prior to the internet, I didn’t know myself that this is a fruit that grows on top of a plant, and not on the branches of a tree. And this specific fruit we call in Dutch ‘Annanas’. And the pineapple is also named ‘Annanas’ in many langages, or derived from it.
Now indeed, the leaves of the fruit have a pinnacle shape, both the leaves and the fruit have a bit of a geometrical structure as well, and also have a rough texture. But that’s about it. The leaves are green, the fruit is tropically sweet, it is large and oval in size, hence it doesn’t resemble an ‘apple’ at all. And where the ‘apple’ comes from, being a soft wooden seedholder for the pinetree? That isn’t quite clear as well. Makes one wonder huh!
The Cedar family (Cedrus)
Of the Cedrus species are around 4 genera, all of which consist of a single species: The Atlas Cedar (Cedrus Atlantica), Cyprus Cedar (Cedrus Brevifolia), Himalayan Cedar (Cedrus Deodara), and the Lebanon Cedar (Cedrus Libani).
The trees usually grow higher in mountainous areas in the Himalayas, western Syria, Turkey, Cyprus, Algeria, Morocco, Lebanon, America, Japan and Australia. In the Netherlands, Cedar trees even grow well on the west coast, or the part which is from ancient history described as ‘the low lands’ (Nether = low), and even below sea level, so it can be. The trees can reach a height of 50 meters under ideal conditions!
In America many Cypress species are called ‘Cedars’, such as the Coniferous shrub ‘Mountain Cedar’ (Juniperus ashei) with small leaves, and ‘Yellow Cedar’ (‘Cupressus nootkatensis’, also named Alaskan Yellow Cedar or Sitka Cypress) with wide fanning leaves, while -also in America- these belong taxonomically to the Cypres family.
Other Cypress trees are also commonly called: Western Red Cedar, Pacific Red Cedar, Giant Arborvitae or Western Arborvitae, Giant Cedar, or Shinglewood.
Kedre
In Russia, the Siberian Pine (Pinus Siberica), has also been called Cedar, due to the word ‘Kedre’, which was initially translated into English and Dutch as ‘Cedar’, as it resembles the word. But is has not yet been recognized as a Cypress variety, nor is it being recognized as a Cedar in the Netherlands. And that is correct, as according to the Latin classification, the tree belongs to the Order of the Pinales and more specific, belongs to the Pinaceae family, because it’s a Pine. But… there’s more to say about this (which will follow later on below).
Ancient forests
There is the estimated three thousand years old giant Thuja Picata, a Cypress of the Cupressaceae family, which were once the most widespread trees in the Pacific Northwest. A few of those remaining giants can still be admired in Northern Western America and Canada, which are probably the last remnants of prehistorical woods.
At breast height, these trees are around 18′ feet in diameter (which is around 5.4 metres), and 177′ feet tall (almost 54 metres). Skyscrapers they are! But… as they belong to the Cupressaceae family, well they then should have been called Western Red Cypress then? Or was Cedar their original name?
The naming is therefore not really logical, but it is important to know. Maybe some tree types need to be classified or named more specifically? Many people already know about the differentiation, but for a laymen it is important to get a bit of an idea of the complexity of information out there. Once one knows where to look at, it becomes more simple to make informed decisions. As I gained new insights, I’ll further elaborate on this below. But it takes some semi-etymologic reasoning to get to my conclusion. So please bear with me!
Cedar versus Kedre
As stated earlier, the different naming is also similar in Russian, the Siberian Pine is called ‘Kedre’, and in Albanian (and Arabic?) ‘Kedri’. This is considered in translations for ‘Cedar’, while it is a Pine. So I looked it up.
‘Ké’dros’
In ancient Greek, Cedar is ‘Ké’dros’, which stands for resinous trees with fragrant wood, and perhaps the name is derived from it in several languages. The Greek ‘Kedrostos’ or ‘Kédrou’ means ‘made from Cedar wood’, such as a ‘cedar table’.
‘Ké’gel’
Perhaps the Dutch word for ‘Cone’, which is ‘Kegel’ also stems from the Greek ‘Ké’dros’. In both cases the first two letters ‘Ké’ sounds the same. Hence the Dutch word ‘Kegel’ might also refer to all Conifers as they are cone-bearing, but the trees theirselves also have a tapered canopy in a conical shape, which is characteristic of Conifers, and we do not see with other tree species. So there’s some sort of logic to it.
Kó’nos
‘Cone’ in Greek is ‘Kónos’ (κώνος) and ‘Conc’ in Latin. So also with this word we see the C and K interchanged, we see Ke and Co, just as with Ke of Kedre and Ce of Ceder or Cedar. They all could be related somehow, especially since all Conifer species are considered to belong to the Order of the Pines (not just the Pines family), while the species can vary considerably.
Timber trade
In the timber trade, Cedar Wood was used as a name for various types of coniferous wood. And the same is also true with the Dutch word for Pine: ‘Den’. In the ‘Koenen manual dictionary of the Dutch language’ from 1974 (first edition 1897), Pine is described as: ‘Den’:
‘Den’
The English meaning for ‘Den’ is being either the home of a large fierce wild animal such as a lion, or a centre of secret esp illegal activity, or a comfortable quiet room in a house where a person can be alone, in Dutch however it has the sole meaning of ‘Pine’:
Den: ‘Name of different species of ‘needle trees’ (Lat. Pi’nus): followed by the saying: “as slender as a pine”, meaning very slender.’
In English there are more expressions surrounding pine, such as:
‘to pine away’, with the meaning to become thin, less active, and lose strength and health slowly, through disease or esp. grief, or: ‘to have a strong desire, esp. that is impossible to fulfil.’
‘Den’dro’
A little further on the same page is: ‘Den’dro’ which is derived from the Greek ‘Den’dron’, which means ‘tree’.
‘Dendro’graphy’
And ‘dendrography’ is: ‘tree description science, part of the botany that deals with the study of trees and shrubs.’
(Also think of ‘Rhodondendron’, a shrub with large flowers, the ancient Greek ‘Rhodon’ = Rose, so the word in its entirety means ‘Rose tree’.)
Giants of yesteryear
‘Ceder’ in the Dutch dictionary contains the following: ‘Ceder m -s, -en, (Gr. Ke’dros) large pine tree, among others on the Lebanon: (b. Ps. 29, 5) The voice of the Lord breaks the cedars; yea the Lord breaks the cedars of Lebanon; bn. made of cedar wood.’
‘The voice of the Lord’ may have to do with the construction of large temples and buildings in times gone by, and ‘Ceder’ can either mean the tree or its wood. So yes, that’s about the glorious Cedar giants of yesteryear.
Lebanon Cedar
Since above Lebanon is mentioned, the Lebanon Cedar has small leaves of around 1½ to 2 cm, which is gathered star-wise on the branches and twigs. There are a few century old remnants in Lebanon of these trees. The tree is also the national symbol and shows in the flag of Lebanon. Sadly, there aren’t much of these trees left, let alone forests.
Ceder and Cedar
Further the Dutch dictionary states:
‘Cede-ren’, h eed (Lat. Cede) 1) cede, transfer; 2) yield.’
And:
‘Ce’derhout’ o wood of the cedar; in the timber trade as coll. for various types of ‘naaldhout soorten’ = literally translated: ‘needle-wood species’, Cedar-oil: oil of some cedars, used for perfumery and embalming.
And the English dictionary states:
LONGMAN Contemporary English: ‘Cedar – a tall evergreen tree, also cedar wood, the hard reddish sweet smelling wood of this tree used for making pencils, decorative boxes, furniture, etc.’
What I find interesting is the different color descriptions of the wood, for Pine it is obviously white and soft and for Cedar hardwood and red. But this is for those two specific languages the dictionaries are derived of. (NL and UK).
Conclusion
From all of the above info, I have distuingished the Pine and Cedar also historically stemming from different families, despite their overlapping and resembling names in different languages. But when classified in their order, they are indeed both from the Order of the Pinales, which then justifies their different names in several languages!
So when terminology is being used such as Alaskan ‘Yellow Cedar’, the ‘Ringing Cedars’ of Russia, the German ‘Tannenbaum’ or the Dutch ‘Denneboom’, their names could refer very well to the ORDER of the trees in which they are categorized, which is the Order of the Pinales, but the families they belong to are named differently in many languages worldwide.
The Cypress family (Cupressaceae)
A number of trees from this group of Cypress Conifers, such as the Thuja species, have been cultivated as ‘garden conifers’ because they have a fanning leaf with a soft texture, and are evergreen, and therefore look good in garden hedges all seasons. This is how most people know them.
They have been described as ‘THE Conifer’ by professional growers, which makes many people think also that it is the Conifer par excellence. According to growers they can be classified in two major groups: the Thuja Plicata and the Thuja Occidentalis. (Thuja Plicata: redbrown trunk dark green leaves, Thuja Occidentalis: brown trunk, with a slightly ligher green leaf and mat color).
Wikipedia states however there are five species in the genus Thuja, two native to North America and three native to eastern Asia. The genus is monophyletic and sister to Thujopsis. Members are commonly known as arborvitaes, thujas or cedars. The original (primeval) varieties of Thuja grow very tall and are not suitable for small gardens or low hedges. Below a few wellknown species.
Thuja Occidentalis (binomial named by Carl Linnaeus 1753), (also named ‘Northern White Cedar’, ‘Eastern Arbovitae’, ‘Platycladus Orientali’ – (north east of USA and south east of Canada, wet forests, coniferous swamps), red brown bark with longitudial strips, originally 125 ft tall (38 m), as a cultivar widely cultivated, over 300 cultivars, and then only 49 ft tall (15 m high), 3.0 ft diameter (0.9 m).
Thuja Plicata (‘Western Red Cedar’, ‘Pacific Red Cedar’, ‘Giant Arbovitae’, ‘Western Arbovitae’, ‘Giant Cedar’, ‘Shinglewood’, ‘Giant Tree of Life’ – 80 meters high). Of these are still a few remnants in ancient forests, estimated to be 2000 to 3000 years old.
Italian Cypress (‘Cupressus Sempervirens’), the California Cypress (‘Cupressus Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana’, allegedly also naturally occurring in Oregon), and the Japanese Hiba Cypres (‘Thujopsis Dolobrata’, ‘Hiba Arborvitae’). All these trees have a wide sheet type of Conifer Leaves.
Juniperus Communis (Common Juniper) is an exception in this Cypres family, and may therefore not be classified very taxo-logically. It has sharply pointed small-leaves that grow around the branches. It is a tree or shrub of 10 meters high and is two-sided. It is a wind bloomer that shows small white catkins every year, which produce small black to dark blue / purple berries with a conical structure (strobili). The thrush (bird) eats the bluish purple berries and spreads the seeds.
Man uses the berry as a spice in small quantities, because it has a bitter taste. Furthermore, the berry is used for the production of alcoholic beverages and for medicinal applications. The Common Juniper has a large distribution area worldwide: from the polar circle to the subtropical regions, as well as Asia, Canada, America and Europe. I’m wondering if this tree could be better classified as a Conifer Bush type with strobili cones.
The Pine family (Pinaceae)
There are about 111 species of the Pine family worldwide. All Pine species have medium to long small leaves of about 3 to 8 inches, which are grouped in bundles in groups on twigs or short shoots, in clusters of 2, 3 or 5 long small-leaves.
Well-known pine trees are: Pinus Cembra (‘The Alpine Pine’), Pinus Sibirica (‘Siberian Pine’), Pinus Sylvestris (‘Common Pine’) in England and Scotland and (‘Grove Den’ = ‘Rough Pine’) in the Netherlands, (‘Scotch Pine’) in America.
Naturally occurring pines in eastern North America are the Pinus Strobus (‘Eastern White Pine’), which has long small-leaves (17 cm) in bundles. Each bundle contains clusters consisting of 5 narrow leaves.
Pinus Resinosa (‘Red Pine’), has long-leaves 17 cm, Pinus Banksiana (‘Jack Pine’), has short-leaves in bundles of 2, forming a V. The female cones lie along the branch and point outwards, seen from the trunk.
Pinus Sylvestris (‘Scotch Pine’), has medium-sized leaves (7 cm). These are in bundles of two, which rotate slightly around each other at the end. The bark of the trunk at the top of the tree often comes loose, including – as mentioned earlier – an orange color of the wood layer under the bark. The cones on the branches of this tree are pointed towards the trunk. This is illogical in the context of wind pollination. Perhaps it is therefore a cultivar that was planted on a large scale a few decades ago because of the possible rapid growth, specially cultivated for wood production.
The Spruce or Fir family (Picaceae)
Spruce and Fir are often mixed up with the naming of their species. (Results below most likely from my search results as well. But, it’s a start 🙂
The Spruce family includes around 5 genera and around 35 species. From it are obtained tar, turpentine and rosin. Well-known are:
Picea Abies (Norway spruce), which we know as Christmas tree, the Picea Pungens (Blue spruce), Picea Omorika (Serbian spruce), Picea Orientalis (Caucasian spruce), Picea Sitchensis (Sitka spruce), and the Picea Obovata (Siberian Fir).
The Fir has short-leaves of 1 cm to 2½ cm, which grows evenly and loosely spread on the branches or twigs. The narrow blade can be both hard and soft, the diameter flattened or round, the end sharply pointed or sloping around.
Pseudotsuga Menziesii (‘Douglas Fir’ and ‘-Glauca’, ‘Coast Douglas Fir’ and the ‘Rocky Mountain Douglas Fir’ in America), is often planted in Dutch forests as well.
Tsuga (Hemlock Fir), genera with 9 species, North America and Asia, and is also planted for lumber in Europe, New Zealand and South America. Spruce can reach a height of 30 to 50 meters, the height varies per species. Hemlocks have hanging branches, with flexible flat-shaped small-leaves with white stripes at the bottom, and a round end.
The Larch Family (Larix)
Larix Decidua (‘The European Larix or Lork’), Larix Kaempferi (‘Japanese Larix’), both lose their small-leaves in the fall and winter, which are star-shaped and grouped on the branches. The Larch is a tree of high mountains and of the northern regions of Europe, but large Larch forests also occur in Canada, Siberia, the Himalayas, South-West China and Japan. The tree adapts less well in the Netherlands, although a Larix forest has been planted in the northern area Drenthe.
The Taxus Family (Taxaceae)
Taccus Baccata is the only species in this family (‘Yew Family’ in English) Yew Baccata is two-pronged, and is also growing in the Netherlands. Overhere, they are small tree shrubs that grow with several trunks and reach a height of around 4 meters.
Characteristic is the dark green small-leaf which is flat, and the red conical berries. The seed in the berries is toxic to humans, so do not consume these berries. It is said that the birds do eat it and tolerate it well (they would not digest the seed which, therefore, leaves the body through the faeces undamaged).
There are about 5 almost identical genera, with almost only a geographical difference, of which about 10 species. The species is also cultivated. Taxus Brevifolia (North America) and Taxus Wallichiana (China and Japan) and Taxus Globosa (Mexico) are threatened with extinction (according to certain internet sources).
The Exotic Families
The exotic Conifer families do not naturally occur in Europe. These are to some internetsources: the Araucariaceae (41 old species in three genera: ‘Agathis’, ‘Araucaria’, ‘Wollemia’), Podocarpaceae (200 species, about 15 genera, leaf leaves), Sciadopityaceae (1 genus, 1 species: ‘Japanese umbrella pine’) and Cephalotaxaceae (‘Knoptaxus’, small trees and shrubs).
© 2019 | Margreet Wilschut
www.margreetotto.net
*******
Click on the link for the next or previous part:
CONIFERS 1 – INTRODUCTION
CONIFERS 2 – FUNCTION AND PURPOSE
CONIFERS 3 – LEAF AND FOLIAGE
CONIFERS 4 – CONES AND STROBILI
CONIFERS 5 – FAMILIES
Next part:
CONIFERS 6 – GROWING
CONIFERS 7 – GERMINATION SEEDS
August 1, 2019 | TREES
Part 6. Growing Conifers can either be done indoors, or directly outside on a balcony, garden or estate. There are a few factors to look out for. The purpose of growing them could be for planting a green living fence, or for creating a small forest on a quarter hectare.
On a larger scale it might be for greening cities, and the reforestation of landscapes. The latter two require more knowledge and practical experience, but that is outside the scope of these articles, as these are primary focused on people managing hectare-units. (Picture: Avito Russia ~ Man holding a young Siberian Pine. This juvenile tree is around two years old).
Lay people
Actually, that was precisely the reason why these articles came about, because although there was a wealth of information online on Conifers, it oftentimes appeared a bit chaotic and sometimes contradicting. Hence the search for a layperson raised only more questions, so it took a lot of time to find certain answers! And although the author still hasn’t much of a practical experience with growing trees, the drive was there to get all information clear and uncluttered and to create an overview of where to start. But why would lay people want to grow Conifers, one might ask.
But why?
Due to climate change, trees and forests experience more difficulty in retaining their balance with their water cycles. Especially in times of prolonged heat and drought, the trees might dry out, with the consequence of having their green foliage turning yellow and falling off, while leaving the branches arid and barren. As long as the trees are mature, and still have a significant amount of green coverage left, they will survive, although they might have visibly lost some of their natural zest and beauty.
Worst case scenarios when it comes to climate change, as we have seen over the last few years is that forests even burn down to the ground, in which case it’ll be very hard to recover the soil in these area’s, for new forest growth. We have collectively witnessed this in the year 2018, which is internationally recognized as a significant marker of acceleration, which continued in 2019. And in the first week of 2020, vast areas in Australia burned down, leading up to devestating loss of forests, wildlife and people’s residencies and habitats.
Saplings
Even under less dramatic circumstances however, and with less severe drought, young saplings might get in trouble earlier, as their rootsystem isn’t completely developed, which then do not reach the deeper layers in the soil, where more groundwater is available. When not taken care of, they will definitely die. Therefore it is important when circumstances of climate aren’t coöperating, for these trees to get a helping hand from humans. This might even take up a timeframe of 7 to 9 years, as the initial growth of these trees is very slow.
It is odd in a way, when you think about it, because as long as our planet Earth has been turning around the sun, lets say for many billion years or so, nature never ever needed a helping hand from humans to survive and reproduce itself. But now humanity is faced with this challenge.
Let’s face it
So what can we do? Actually, can we do anything at all? And if yes, where will we start? Well, these are difficult questions to answer, as we don’t know all the factors involved with climate change and the disturbed watercycle worldwide. Also, regarding the reproduction of Conifer trees isn’t a lot of practical experience among the common people, nor is their much online information available.
Therefore first of all, for those who would like to start, -no matter what, where or when-, one has to determine their choice of Conifer from the 600+ species that are out there, which must be suitable for the landscape and climate one lives in. For this article, how to grow a Conifer, we’ll take the Siberian Pine as an example, as these naturally grow in large forestmass covering many rural areas on the northern hemisphere.
Ancient varieties
For the ancient Cypres and Cedar varieties though, that are probably 2000 to 3000 years old, which are described in the previous article (Conifers – Families), it should be mentioned that these very old trees no longer grow cones, as they’ve left their reproductive age behind. It might be a good idea to take a look at these ancient families, and if they can be preserved somehow (which might be a topic for another article). If I understood well, it is possible with a specific method to cultivate these trees by grafting their young branches on a rootstock.
Contemplation
It is also of equal importance to contemplate on the choice of reforestation on the public domain inside hectare villages, as well as outside the villages. We might wonder, are these only decisions for the academically educated people out there? Who quite often seem to differ in opinion as well, when it comes to classification and other related topics to trees? Who seem to agree to grow vast forests of non-reproductive cultivars instead for commercial logging? Or does finding the right answers matter to all of us?
There are so many factors to consider regarding the choices to make. What purpose do the trees have? Do they provide food?, shelter?, an evergreen outlook throughout all seasons?, a habitat for birds and animals?, can they procreate naturally?, etcetera, etcetera. Therefore, proper namegiving (as mentioned in previous article) might also be interesting for understanding the trees better, as well as determining certain characteristics.
For example, Cypressus are beautiful to look at, and provide food and shelter for birds and the animal kingdom. The argument for biodiversity is probably in favour, to make a broad selection of a different variety of trees and vegetation. When it comes to ones’ own plot of land, a family or farmer can decide for themselves, while the choice for trees with the purpose of reforestation on common ground, should probably be democratically chosen among the people. In our new world, that is.
Stages
Under optimal conditions, Pines grow into puberty within 20 years. At this age, the tree will have reached a hight of around 17′ feet (5 metres) and will start developing the cones in order to reproduce itself. The tree will still continue to grow and reaches it’s mature height of around 100 to130 feet (30 to 40 metres) with the trunk up to 72 inches (1.8 meter) measured at breast height, with a dense conical crown. Its maximum lifetime is thought to be 800 to 850 years.
Development
Naturally, Conifer trees grow as one species in a forest, and are therefore considered a homogenous group. When humans will reforest areas with Conifers, it is important to imitate these natural circumstances as much as possible. For instance, Conifer trees do not tolerate contact with the branches and leaves of deciduous trees.
When the different types of leaves of the trees touch each other, even more so when strong wind is moving the branches, it causes a certain friction, which results in the Conifers losing their leaves at those irritated spots. The Conifers will continue to grow however, but after a prolongued time the tops and a part of the Conifers might dry out and won’t be able to recover their previous form and beauty.
Esthetics
From an esthetical point of view, when conifers are grouped together they look more decorative, either in hedges or parks. The trees can also be very well placed in between hectare villages, on connecting roads to other villages, surround large areas of agricultural land, and ofcourse, be planted as vast forests. Due to the edible seeds which are very nutritious, the blissful resinous scent that the trees spread, and the ever green look they provide all year round, these trees are a blessing on all terrains. When commercially grown for timber, the trees will also provide a great quality wood in the long run.
Sprouting
Sprouting the seeds requires a bit of knowledge and practice, and time, as it sometimes takes several months under the right conditions for the seeds to germinate. But they can also sprout in a week time. First of all, the seeds must be heirloom and of good quality. Make sure the seeds do not belong to the so called ‘Cultivars’ and when imported from other countries, have been protected from irradiation at the customs.
Therefore, only pick the seeds from older-, and native-, self sustaining-, reproducing, primeval forests, or buy them from a reliable source. Also it is important to set up the right environment for the Conifer seeds in order for them to germinate. They can be placed in a container with sand, which gives better ventilation for the roots, to prevent mold. Also a proces of cold stratification can be used.
© 2019 | Margreet Wilschut
www.margreetotto.net
*******
Click on the link for the next or previous part:
CONIFERS 1 – INTRODUCTION
CONIFERS 2 – FUNCTION AND PURPOSE
CONIFERS 3 – LEAF AND FOLIAGE
CONIFERS 4 – CONES AND STROBILI
CONIFERS 5 – FAMILIES
CONIFERS 6 – GROWING
Next part: Following soon
CONIFERS 7 – GERMINATION SEEDS
